With regard to smart phones, regardless of whether or not you turn off GPS, your cell phone location can be tracked and triangulated very accurately based on the cell towers with which it interacts.
Interesting. So, the only way to prevent all of this is to turn off the cell phone. I used to do that in my early cell phone days. I'd only turn it on when I needed to make a call when out of the house. I affirmatively didn't want to be bothered by receiving phone calls. After all, I had already lived 50 years without any ability to make or receive phone calls when away from a home or business land line, which seemed perfectly normal. And I still mostly feel that way 30 years of cell phones later, especially now that I no longer need one for business.
My wife turns off her cell phone when driving with me so that our nosy insurance tracking app doesn't think she is driving. Maybe that also shields us a bit from Big China, Big Tech and Big Government.
In regard of all this, note my new hat: