My problem at the moment is understanding all the various potential construction materials and products
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You have to know what material your hull is made of in order to be specific about repair. It's obviously not a wood or aluminum hull. So, that leaves the various types of plastic hulls (Royalex/ABS, polyethylene) or composite fabric hulls (fiberglass, Kevlar, others) saturated with a hardened resin (epoxy, vinylester, polyester).
I'd guess from the picture that your hull is some sort of composite fabric. Composite hulls usually have a colored gel coat on the outside, which crudely is like a nail polish, to make it look shiny and provide a protective barrier against scratches and other abrasions. This gel coat inevitably gets scratched, scraped or chipped off with use.
To repair gel coat, you could try to find matching gel coat from a marine supply store and try painting it on, but the color match may not be perfect. Besides, the scratches or abrasions may have penetrated deeper than just the gel coat and damaged the underlying composite fabric. If that's the case, the solution offered by
@Alan Gage and
@ppine is a typical one: fill in the scrapes with epoxy (perhaps thickened) and then, if you wish, just paint the hull to get a new and consistent color. With use, of course, the paint will scratch off and the cycle repeats. So, many folks don't bother trying to pretty up an older canoe.
If the damage to the underlying composite fabric is actually structural, such as cracks or tears that penetrate through the fabric, you would then have to apply fabric patches (usually fiberglass) with epoxy on the inner and outer hulls over the damaged area.
West Systems epoxy is a popular choice for all these repairs, and West also sells its own companion thickening agents. The following repair kit may have all the ingredients you need.
A Fiberglass Boat Repair Kit contains items needed to repair cracks, scrapes, gelcoat blisters, loose hardware, delaminated decks, and panels.
www.westsystem.com
Searches will reveal many discussions and pictures on this site and elsewhere on the internet about all of this.